《建构主义指导下的自主学习理论与实践》汇集了建构主义理论的**观点,探讨了如何在建构主义理论指导下进行自主学习的问题;分析了自主学习的历史根源及发展过程,阐述了自主学习的独有特征,介绍了麦考姆斯、宾特里奇等大师设计的自主学习模型;**论述了自主学习的教学模式及其在课堂中的实际应用,并以此为契机,展示了自主学习**建立的必要性以及构成与发展自主学习**的基本要素。 建构主义指导下的自主学习理论与实践_张雅军_华中师范大学出版社_

4.2 Key Factors Affecting Learner Autonomy
It should be reiterated that autonomy is not an article of faith, a product
ready made for use or merely a personal quality or trait. As far as learner
autonomy is concerned, it is influenced by many kinds of factors in accordance
with its different degrees such as learning motivation, learning attitude,
learning strategy and meta-cognitive knowledge and so on. Obviously, not all learners are successful learners because of multi-variables. They are different from each other in abilities, personalities,intellects, interests, needs and so on. Although everyone has big potential of learner autonomy, the degrees of learner autonomy are different from each other. Therefore, in order to gain deeper insights into learner autonomy, it is very necessary to pay much attention to these factors with the aim of developing learners' autonomous learning.
4.2.1 Motivation
Most scholars seem to agree that the term "motivation" is one of the key
factors that influence the rate and success of language learning. Motivation
provides the primary impetus to initiate learning and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process (Dornyei,2001).William Littlewood (2000) says, "Motivation is the crucial force which determines
whether a learner embarks on a task at all, how much energy he devotes to it,and how long he perseveres. "
Motivation is commonly thought of as an inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action. Or, in more technical terms, motivation refers to "the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect" (Keller, 1983).
Motivation in second language learning is a complex phenomenon which can be defined in terms of four main components:
——Group-specific attitudes;
——Learners' motives for learning the target language;
——Affective factors;
——Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. (Stern, 1983)
Group-specific attitudes refer to the attitudes towards the second language community. If learners have favorable attitudes towards the speakers of the language, they will desire more contact with them. Likewise, if learners need to speak the language in a wide range of social situations or to fulfill professional ambitions, they will perceive the communicative value of the second language and will, therefore, be motivated to acquire proficiency in it.
This model was subsequently expanded in Gardner's socio-educational model of the ways in which motivation for foreign language learning operates in educational settings,.and has been summarized in terms of five hypotheses (Gardner, 1988):
(1) The integrative motive hypothesis: Integrative motivation is positively associated with second language achievement.
(2) The cultural belief hypothesis:Cultural beliefs influence the development of the integrative motive and the degree to which integrativeness and achievement are related.
(3) The active learner hypothesis: Integratively motivated learners are successful because they are active learners.
(4) The causality hypothesis: Integrative motivation is a cause; second language achievement, the effect.
(5) The two process hypothesis: Aptitude and integrative motivations are independent factors in second language learning.
Gardner & Lambert (1972) make the distinction between integrative and instrumental motivation: A learner with integrative motivation has a genuine interest in the culture of the target language and people to integrate more within the target-language society. He/she wants to learn their language in order to communicate with them more satisfactorily and gain closer contact with them and their culture. However, instrumental motivation refers to language learning for more immediate or practical goals. Learners may make efforts to learn a second language for some functional reasons-to pass art exam, to get a better job, or to get a place at university. They are motivated to learn a second language because it opens up educational and economic opportunities for them.
While both integrative and instrumental motivations are essential elements of success, it is integrative motivation which has been found to maintain long- term success when learning a second language. But nowadays the importance of instrumental motivation is also stressed. Brown (2001) points out that integrative and instrumental. motivations are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Integrative motivation is continually linked to successful second language acquisition. It has also been shown to be strongly related to second language achievement. It serves as a powerful factor of success combining with instrumental motivation. Teachers should be able to identify both the types and the combination of motivation that assist in the successful acquisition of a second language.
With respect to learner autonomy, even if there is controversy as for the relationship between motivation and learner autonomy, whether it is motivation that promotes autonomy or autonomy that creates motivation, its function on second language learning or foreign language learning is considerable. Spratt (2002) in Hong Kong Polytechnic University conducted a study dealing with the relationship between autonomy and motivation in language learning and they concluded that motivation is a key factor that influences the extent to which learners are ready to learn autonomously and that teachers might therefore try to ensure motivation before they train learners to become autonomous.
The implication we can obtain from the brief review of the relationship between motivation and learner'autonomy is that in order to foster learner autonomy from within the classroom, the first thing a teacher should do is to develop learners' motivation. In the teaching process a teacher should consider these aspects, e. g. giving them a good environment for language learning to motivate them and an effective teaching method in order to prepare them for autonomous learning. Without motivation of learning, it is hard for a learner to make a study plan, and to monitor learning process. Without motivation, learner autonomy will be probably impossible.
4.2.2 Attitudes
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913) defines attitude as "a complex mental orientation involving beliefs and feelings and values and dispositions to act in certain ways," while Collins Cobuild Student's Dictionary (1990) explains that: "Your attitude to something is the way you think and feel about it. " The term "attitude," as defined by Sarnoff (1970) ,deals with a disposition to react favorably or unfavorably to a class of objects. Eagly & Chaiken (1995) expand this idea by stating that attitude is all outcome of the categorization process, and this process is influenced by social environment.
Attitudes can be classed as items of social knowledge that are continually formed, strengthened and modified. They can be defined as mediated reactions that have been influenced by social context. Attitudes are a means of adjusting to and strongly making changes in one social environment. Baker (1988) outlines the main features of attitude as: 1) Attitudes are cognitive and affective; 2) Attitudes are dimensional, in that they vary in degree of favorability/unfavorability; 3) Attitudes are learnt; 4) Attitudes often persist, however they can be modified by experience; 5) Attitudes incline a person to act in a certain way.
Wenden (1998) defines attitudes as learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding. For her, two kinds of attitudes are crucial: attitudes learners hold about their role in the learning process and their capability as learners. In a sense, attitudes are a form of meta-cognitive knowledge.
……

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Traditional TeacherCentered Approach
1.2 The Aim of This Book
1.3 Autonomy and Related Concepts
1.4 Overview of This Book
Chapter 2 A Survey of Co tructivist Theory
2.1 Definition of Co tructivism
2.2 Historical Roots of Co tructivism
2.3 Fundamental Principles of Co tructivism
2.4 Co tructivist Learning Theories
2.5 Implicatio of Co tructivism for Classroom Teaching
Chapter 3 Reviews on Learner Autonomy
3.1 Definition of Learner Autonomy
3.2 The Theoretical Background
3.3 Fundamental Principles of Learner Autonomy
3.4 Justification of Learner Autonomy
3.5 Promoting Autonomy in Classroom
Chapter 4 Characteristics of Learner Autonomy
4.1 Characteristics of Autonomous Learne
4.2 Key Facto Affecting Learner Autonomy
4.3 Conditio of Learner Autonomy in the Framework of Co tructivism
Chapter 5 Models of Learner Autonomy
5.1 Pintrich's Framework
5.2 Social Cognitive Theory
5.3 Butler and Winne's Model
5.4 Winne and Hadwin's FourPhase Model
5.5 McCombs' Model
5.6 Garrison's Model
5.7 Brockett and Hiemstra's Model
5.8 Hadwin's Model of Task Unde tanding
Chapter 6 I tructional Models of Learner Autonomy
6.1 I tructional Principles
6.2 Cooperative I truction Model
6.3 ProblemBased I truction/Vlodel
6.4 WebBased I truction Model
6.5 Anchored I truction (AI)
Chapter 7 Autonomy in Classroom
7.1 The Autonomous Classroom
7.2 Implementing Learner Autonomy
7.3 Organizing Classroom Work
7.4 Assessment
7.5 Feedback
Chapter 8 Autonomous Learning Center
8.1 Definition of SACs
8.2 The Development of SACs
8.3 Types of SACs
8.4 Rationale for SACs
8.5 Key Facto of SACs
8.6 Process of Setting up a SAC
8.7 Maintaining the SAC
8.8 Potential Hurdles and Challenges
8.9 Main SACs in the World
Chapter 9 Conclusion
Bibliography

《建构主义指导下的自主学习理论与实践》汇集了建构主义理论的**观点,探讨了如何在建构主义理论指导下进行自主学习的问题;分析了自主学习的历史根源及发展过程,阐述了自主学习的独有特征,介绍了麦考姆斯、宾特里奇等大师设计的自主学习模型;**论述了自主学习的教学模式及其在课堂中的实际应用。